|
Resources:
Clenbuterol | Buy Anabolic Steroids | Buy Steroids | Buy Steroids | Nano MP3 Players
| essay
The NEUROBOTICS project
will produce a strongly co-ordinated, multidisciplinary and
interdisciplinary effort by relying on and enhancing the state of the art
in three main scientific areas: robotics, with special reference to
bio-mimetic, anthropomorphic systems and bionic components, neuroscience,
with special reference to sensory-motor coordination; and interfacing
technology, with reference to non invasive and invasive interfaces to the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) as well as to the central nervous system
(CNS). Furthermore, and more importantly, NEUROBOTICS will consolidate the
area of "human augmentation" and "hybrid bionic
systems", whose state of the art is at present scattered and rather
weak (Dario et al. 1993). As stated by E. Von Gierke,
considered as the pioneer of this discipline, the primary goal of bionics
is to extend mans physical and intellectual capabilities by prosthetic
devices in the most general sense, and to replace man by automata and
intelligent machines (Von Gierke et al. 1970).
Referring to the
present development of the discipline, Hybrid Bionic Systems (HBSs) can be generically defined as systems that
contain both technical (artificial) and biological components. They can include:
- artificial systems with biological
elements or subsystems. In such a case, the biological system is a
complementary or supplementary element to the technical system;
- biological systems with artificial
elements or subsystems. The artificial subsystem, e.g. a robotic
artefact, is a complementary or supplementary element to the
biological system.
In recent years, many
scientific and technological efforts have been devoted to create HBSs that link, via neural interfaces, the human
nervous system with electronic and/or robotic artefacts. In general, this
research has been carried out with various aims: on the one hand, to
develop systems for restoring motor and sensory functionalities in injured
and disabled people; on the other hand, for exploring the possibility of
augmenting sensory-motor capabilities of humans in general, not only of
disabled people.
As regards restoring
motor capabilities, several technologies have been devised to exploit the
residual nervous and/or muscular activities of the (paralysed or amputated)
limbs (Craelius 2002). According to Gasson et al. (2002), such technologies can be
basically classified into:
- technologies for the control of
prosthetic limbs (Prochazka et al. 1997;
Lauer et al., 2000; Craelius, 2002; Popovic 2003). New materials, microfabrication
technologies, advanced robotics mechanisms, computational algorithms
and regenerative electrodes have been explored (Ramachandran
et al., 1993; Bogdan et al., 1994; Montelius et al., 1996; Prochazka
et al., 1997; Abboudi et al., 1999; Dario et
al., 1998; Ceballos et al., 2002);
- the control of external
electrically powered systems. For instance, a system allowing to
control an electrically powered wheelchair without using the hands has
been developed (Felzer et al., 2002), that
relies upon electromyogram (EMG) as input
signal.
Restoration of lost
sensory-motor functions has been pursued through neuroprostheses
for subjects with neurological disorders, such as those caused by spinal
cord injury (SCI) or stroke/head injury (Stein et al. 1992; Popovic and Sinkjaer 2000;
Lauer 2000), or by robotic devices like the RoboWalker,
an active exoskeleton which can augment or replace muscular functions of
the lower limbs, for example to assist motor-impaired individuals (http://www.yobotics.com/).
As for sensory
functionalities, important results have been achieved in restoring hearing
and sight capabilities. Some improvements in auditory performance of people
with hearing loss can be obtained with cochlear implants (Simmons et al.,
1965; Blume 1999; Loizou
1999, Spelman 1999; Marsot-Dupuch
et al., 2001). Retinal implants can be realized in the attempt to regain
lost visual functionality. Neuroprosthetic
solutions can be classified as cortical (Normann
et al., 1999; Dobelle 2000; Normann
et al., 2001), retinal (Eckmiller 1997; Peyman et al., 1998; Walter 1998; Rizzo et al., 1999; Zrenner et al., 1999; Walter et al., 1999; Chow et al.,
2001; Humayun et al., 2001; Meyer 2002), and
optic nerve based (Veraart et al., 1998). A
thorough review of the state of the art in the fields of epiretinal, subretinal and
optic nerve implants can be found in (Margalit et
al., 2002). An interesting approach is the design of an ocular prosthesis
with an autonartificial eye to move more
naturally (Gu, 2000)
As for augmenting
capabilities of able-bodied persons, it is worth to mention the US Defence
Advanced Project Agency (DARPA) initiative that is currently trying to
develop exoskeletons for human performance augmentation (EHPA), although
focussed on military application. In particular, four EHPA projects work on
the development of small actuators, lightweight structures, and control
technology to be integrated in devices 'wearable' by a human and able to
augment his physical capabilities (http://www.darpa.mil/dso/thrust/matdev/ehpa.htm).
Neural interfaces
connect the nervous system with artefacts. The control of artificial
systems by means of direct interfaces to the nervous system, either in
animals or in humans, has been recently investigated by a few groups,
especially in the US
(Chapin et al., 1999, Levine et al., 2000, Donoghue,
2002, Tatlor et al., 2002, Nicolelis
2003). Multielectrode recordings allowed
researchers to simultaneously monitoring the extracellular
activity of over a hundred single neurons in both anaesthetized and awake
animals, and to predict the outcomes of the animal's behaviour during
learning of a motor task (Nicolelis 2001, Nicolelis et al., 2002). This has led to the
possibility of investigating how information is processed and encoded in
living cultured neuronal networks of animals by interfacing them to a
computer-generated animal, the Neurally-Controlled
Animat, living in a virtual world (Demarse et al., 2001). Researchers at the University of Illinois
and at the University
of Genoa have jointly
fabricated simple hybrid creatures with a mechanical body controlled by the
brain of a lamprey (Graham-Rowe 2000; Reger et
al., 2000). The robot is the Kephera, and the
lamprey brainstem with part of its spinal cord was extracted and maintained
in an oxygenated and refrigerated salt solution. Chapin and colleagues
(Chapin et al., 1999) demonstrated that simultaneous recordings from
ensembles of cortical and thalamic neurons can be decoded in real time to
allow a rat to control monodimensional motion of
a robotic arm. Large pyramidal neurons in motor cortex (red triangles) send
axons to spinal cord, ending on interneurons and motoneurons. Microelectrodes could record neural
activity, which is transformed by an artificial neural network into signals
required to operate a robotic arm (Fetz 1999). A
similar experiment has been carried out on primates. Wessberg
and collegues (Wessberg
et al., 2000) recorded the simultaneous activity of large populations of
neurons, distributed in the premotor, primary
motor and posterior parietal cortical areas, as non-human primates
performed two distinct motor tasks. Cortically derived signals have been
successfully used for real-time three-dimensional control of robotic arms. These
results suggest that long-term control of complex prosthetic robot arm
movements can be achieved by simple real-time transformations of neuronal
population signals derived from multiple cortical areas in primates.
Among the few
experiments carried out so far on human subjects, a remarkable example is
described in (Kennedy et al., 2000), where humans with brain-implanted chip
have learned to drive a cursor on a computer monitor. This system requires
implantation of a Neurotrophic Electrode (that
uses trophic factors to encourage growth of
neural tissue into the hollow electrode tip) into the outer layers of the
human neocortex. The recorded signals are
transmitted to a nearby receiver and processed in front of the patient. Another
recent experiment consisted in implanting a 100 microelectrodes array onto
the median nerve of a human subject. A number of experiments have been
carried out using the signals detected by the array. The subject was able
to control an electric wheelchair and an intelligent artificial hand. In
addition to being able to measure the nerve signals, the implant was also
able to create artificial sensation by stimulating individual electrodes
within the array (Gasson et al., 2002; Warwick et
al., 2003). In Europe, the FET-CYBERHAND
project has the goal to produce the fundamental knowledge on neural regeneration
and sensory motor control of the hand in humans, and the technological
means, with the ultimate aim to develop a new cybernetic prosthesis,
directly controlled via bi-directional peripheral neural interfaces.
The basic assumption of
the NEUROBOTICS challenge is that recent advancements in the field of
Neuroscience, and specifically on understanding sensory-motor mechanisms
which govern upper limb motion control (e.g. Grillner
1985; Droulez and Berthoz
1991; Lacquaniti 1997; Burnod
et al., 1999; Johansson et al., 1999; Mc Intyre
2001; Grillner et al 2002; Ohki et al., 2002 and
many more), adequately combined with enabling robotic, mechatronic
and microengineering biomimetic/biomorphic
technology, which for example already made possible the development of
humanoid robots in Japan (Hirai, 1998, Inoue, 2000; Kanehira,
2002; Kaneko, 2002; Sakagami, 2002) and of
advance biomechatronic platforms in Europe (Butterfa?, 2001; Schulz et al, 2001; Dario et al. 2002;
Carrozza et al., 2002a; Carrozza
et al., 2003a), could lead to a break-through in the fields of human
augmentation, and specifically of Hybrid Bionic Systems based on robotic
artefacts.
Based on all previous
considerations, the main objective of NEUROBOTICS will be to generate, in a
5-year time frame, new scientific knowledge and new enabling technologies
for the design and development of Hybrid Bionic Systems (HBSs), in response to the FET ProActive
Initiative "Beyond Robotics". NEUROBOTICS will systematically
explore the area of HBSs, defined as the
integration of a robotic artefact with a human being through appropriate
physical and cognitive bi-directional interfaces, and will deeply
investigate the theme of human augmentation. More specifically, NEUROBOTICS
will focus on human augmentation problems related to upper limb
sensory-motor functions when a human brain is always present in the control
loop. This choice is the optimal solution for scaling the general problem
of human augmentation to a level of complexity and risk compatible with
NEUROBOTICS resources and, at the same time, for exploiting the knowledge
and the technology made available by previous and ongoing FET projects as a
start-up impulse. In spite of this reduced domain of investigation, the
results of the project are ewhole domain of HBSs for human augmentation.
The NEUROBOTICS
strategy is based on a top-down approach which brings together the
"best neuroscience knowledge on sensori-motor
control" with the "best robotic technology and interfacing
technology available" in order to produce a focused joint effort. The
NEUROBOTICS consortium considers this approach as the the
one which could reduce potential risks to a minimum, and lead to real
break-throughs in five years. The starting point
for the project is the most advanced state of the art in neuroscience
relevant to HBSs, which is directly provided to
the project by a highly-qualified group of neuroscientists. In detail,
NEUROBOTICS aims at the following Project Objectives (POs):
- PO1. Providing a comprehensive
definition of the scientific domain of Hybrid Bionic Systems,
including general taxonomy, functional classification and novel
metrics for direct comparison of performance of different HBSs in a common domain;
- PO2 Defining and assessing a
set of formal methodologies, intended as new design methods for
radically innovative HBSs and as novel
experimental methods for executing rigorous scientific tests on
NEUROBOTICS systems;
- PO3 Investigating and
developing new biomorphic actuation, sensing and neural interfacing
technologies as the basic enabling components for developing the
NEUROBOTICS artefacts. Novel actuators and sensors will be developed
according to a strict biomorphic approach and, in any case, following
the suggestions given by neuroscientists;
- PO4 Designing and developing
new integrated robotic artefacts, as much biomorphic as required to be
effectively interfaced with human body and brain. More specifically,
three robotic platforms featuring different levels of hybridness (i.e. mechanical coupling with the
human body) and of connectivity (to the human nervous systeaugmentation:
- The "Beyond Tele-operation"
platform. A biomimetic artefact, for
investigating problems related to interfacing humans with scalable
artefacts not physically coupled with the human body. Research focus
is on remote manipulators, ranging from micro/nano
grippers for grasping biological cells through micro-manipulators for
minimally invasive surgery to classical robotic arm-hand manipulation
systems operating in hazardous environments;
- The "Beyond Orthesis"
platform. An intelligent wearable artefact, e.g. an arm exoskeleton,
for investigating problems related to interfacing humans with
artefacts which are loosely physically coupled with the body;
- The "Beyond Prosthesis"
platform. An arm-hand system, for investigating problems related to
interfacing humans with artefacts which are tightly physically
coupled with the body. The arm-hand system will be devised to be
highly modular so that its components could be used for functional
substitution in amputees, i.e. as a hand or as an integrated hand/arm
prosthesis, or for functional augmentation in able-bodied persons,
i.e. as a third additional limb.
Both
invasive and non-invasive neural direct interfaces to the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) and to the Central Nervous System (CNS) will be
applied to the three different NEUROBOTICS platforms, as is needed in order
to achieve the connectivity associated with the haugmentation
to be experimented.
In addition, a set of very advanced bio-inspired robotic platforms,
to be used as early prototypes, will be made available to the NEUROBOTICS
Consortium from the very beginning of the project, thanks to direct links
to as many as eight ongoing FET projects participated by NEUROBOTICS
partners, and also by exploiting links to, and research partnership with,
Japanese leading groups in the field of humanoid robotics;
- PO5 Designing and performing
original scientific experiments to be carried out by using the early
prototypes and, as soon as available, the novel platforms provided by
NEUROBOTICS. This effort will allow not only to assess the viability
of the proposed artefacts and interaction/interfacing technology as
innovative solutions for HBSs, but also to
hopefully disclose further opportunities to understand the functions
of human brain by using the NEUROBOTICS platforms for neuroscientific experiments. Special emphasis will
be given to analyse the brain capability of controlling and
coordinating the motion of artefacts and to process artificial sensory
signals, being them alternative, substitutive or additional to the
natural ones;
- PO6Developing novel algorithms
for sensory-motor shared control of HBSs,
deeply based on adaptive paradigms, learning, action recognition and
imitation. These innovative control schemes will be validated in all
NEUROBOTICS platforms by means of tasks involving reaching, grasping,
manipulating, intersecting and catching moving objects. Because of the
presence of the human brain in the high level control loop, the level
of autonomy of the artefact will be limited to low-level reactive
behaviours and to pre-defined sequences of motor programmes triggered
by specific events. The level of autonomy (i.e. shared control) of the
HBSs shall be adaptable according to the
preferences and to the physical and cognitive characteristics of
different persons.
The ambition of
NEUROBOTICS is not only to pursue all the objectives listed above by
gathering a critical mass of leading research groups in Neuroscience and
Robotics, but also to systematise the fusion of neuroscience and robotics
to the extent of establishing a new scientific discipline. These additional
objectives will be pursued by promoting a limited set of accompanying
actions which will be carried out in synergy with other ongoing European and
national initiatives, such as:
- PO7The definition of
structured interaction modalities for roboticists
and neuroscientists, who will share the NEUROBOTICS research methods
and tools for scientific experiments and technological developments
for hybrid bionic systems. This implies the need for merging the quite
different styles and traditions of two different communities:
Neuroscience and Robotics;
- PO8 Establishing a new
scientific community, by targeted dissemination activities and
networking activities; strong links will be established and maintained
with Networks of Excellence on relevant themes, such as the EURON
(European Robotics Research Network), NEURO.IT, and other similar
initiatives to be launched in the VI FP;
- PO9 Educating new generations
of neuroscientists and roboticists, by pilot
actions within the project lifetimand
education materials;
·
PO10 Identify and implement an initial set of
preparatory actions for promoting the creation of an European (Virtual)
Institute of Neuro-Robotics, in strict
interaction with robotics research European networks and other ongoing
related national initiatives in Sweden, France, Italy, and elsewhere. The
ultimate aim of this institute would be to integrate the most advanced
achievements of robotics and neuroscience research, thus implementing an
engineering equivalent of "big science" programs, and launching
long-term initiatives at European and worldwide level. The creation of the
Institute is outside the scope of NEUROBOTICS, but the project will stand
as a building block, helping delineate the framework and aiming to reach
the needed critical mass. In this case, too, links with existing NoEs related to Robotics and to Neuroscience and to
other consistent programs and initiatives worldwide will be exploited and
strengthened all along the project life-cycle.
|